On Contradiction and On Practice
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On Contradiction by Mao Zedong
Purpose of the Text: Mao Zedong wrote On Contradiction in 1937 to address dogmatist errors he observed among comrades at Yan'an, the base for the early Chinese communist experiments under the CPC.
It's regarded as a fundamental introduction to dialectical materialism, effectively summarizing complex philosophical concepts for a broad audience.
Mao asserts that contradictions form the basis of the Marxist worldview and materialist dialectics, which is the scientific tool Marxists use to observe the universe.
The Two World Outlooks
Metaphysical vs. Dialectical: Throughout history, there have been two primary ways of understanding the world: the metaphysical outlook and the dialectical outlook.
The metaphysical outlook is idealistic and does not reflect a scientific understanding of reality. In contrast, the Marxist materialist scientific dialectical outlook emerged with the Industrial Revolution, the rise of the proletariat, and scientific advancements.
Metaphysical Stance: This outlook contends that things are unchanging and permanent, with any change attributed solely to external factors. It rejects the idea that systems possess inherent internal contradictions as their driving force. For example, metaphysicians (like liberals) believe capitalism has always existed and lacks internal contradictions such as class struggle.
Mao cites the ancient Chinese feudal saying, "Heaven changeth not, likewise the Tao changeth not," as an example of metaphysical thinking that ultimately serves feudal and bourgeois ideologies.
Dialectical Stance: "As opposed to the metaphysical world outlook, the world outlook of materialist dialectics holds that in order to understand the development of a thing we should study it internally and in its relations with other things; in other words, the development of things should be seen as their internal and necessary self-movement, while each thing in its movement is interrelated with and interacts on the things around it. The fundamental cause of the development of a thing is not external but internal; it lies in the contradictoriness within the thing. There is internal contradiction in every single thing, hence its motion and development. Contradictoriness within a thing is the fundamental cause of its development."
This fundamentally distinguishes it from metaphysical thinking, which cannot perceive internal contradictions and only sees change from external sources. While materialist dialectics acknowledges external forces, it recognizes they operate primarily through existing internal contradictions.
Mao emphasizes that contradictions are the basis of everything in the universe, from life to motion; all phenomena operate due to their internal contradictions.
Dialectical materialism allows us to understand how Imperial Russia transformed into the socialist Soviet Union, or feudal Japan into Imperial Japan, due to inherent changes within their systems' own logics.
All changes in the universe, whether in nature or society, ultimately occur because of internal contradictions.
"Changes in society are due chiefly to the development of the internal contradictions in society, that is, the contradiction between the productive forces and the relations of production, the contradiction between classes and the contradiction between the old and the new; it is the development of these contradictions that pushes society forward and gives the impetus for the supersession of the old society by the new."
Dialectical materialism does not deny external changes but views them as operating through internal contradictions. Mao uses the metaphor: "In a suitable temperature an egg changes into a chicken, but no temperature can change a stone into a chicken, because each has a different basis."
External forces, such as the global popularity of communism after the October Revolution, influenced societies like China through their own internal logics, contradictions, and laws, a process common in the era of global capitalism and interaction.
The Universality and Particularity of Contradiction
Universality of Contradiction: Contradiction is a universal law; everything from motion to natural laws involves internal contradictions and interdependent opposites.
Capitalism's Internal Contradictions: "But having developed productive forces to a tremendous extent, capitalism has become enmeshed in contradictions which it is unable to solve. By producing larger and larger quantities of commodities, and reducing their prices, capitalism intensifies competition, ruins the mass of small and medium private owners, converts them into proletarians and reduces their purchasing power, with the result that it becomes impossible to dispose of the commodities produced. On the other hand, by expanding production and concentrating millions of workers in huge mills and factories, capitalism lends the process of production a social character and thus undermines its own foundation, inasmuch as the social character of the process of production demands the social ownership of the means of production; yet the means of production remain private capitalist property, which is incompatible with the social character of the process of production."
Stalin's explanation further clarifies: "These irreconcilable contradictions between the character of the productive forces and the relations of production make themselves felt in periodic crises of overproduction, when the capitalists, finding no effective demand for their goods owing to the ruin of the mass of the population which they themselves have brought about, are compelled to burn products, destroy manufactured goods, suspend production, and destroy productive forces at a time when millions of people are forced to suffer unemployment and starvation, not because there are not enough goods, but because there is an overproduction of goods. This means that the capitalist relations of production have ceased to correspond to the state of productive forces of society and have come into irreconcilable contradiction with them. This means that capitalism is pregnant with revolution, whose mission it is to replace the existing capitalist ownership of the means of production by socialist ownership. This means that the main feature of the capitalist system is a most acute class struggle between the exploiters and the exploited."
This means the proletariat and the bourgeoisie are opposite classes in capitalist society, interdependent yet in constant struggle.
Other Examples of Universal Contradiction: "In mathematics: + and - . Differential and integral. In mechanics: action and reaction. In physics: positive and negative electricity. In chemistry: the combination and dissociation of atoms. In social science: the class struggle."
Critique of Deborin: Mao criticizes the Soviet philosopher Abram Deborin for denying that contradictions exist at the beginnings of systems, arguing that contradictions are always present, though not always immediately obvious or expressed as antagonism (e.g., the non-antagonistic contradiction between the proletariat and peasantry in the USSR, resolved through alliance). Deborin's more liberal interpretation of Marxism was suppressed under Stalin but later published by Khrushchev.
Particularity of Contradiction: Mao critiques dogmatists in the Communist Party who fail to understand the specific nature of contradictions, instead applying universal solutions without studying particular systems.
The resolution of contradictions (e.g., socialist revolution for bourgeoisie-proletariat, debate for party ideological contradictions, alliance for peasant-proletarian) varies across contexts and societies. Dogmatists, however, ignore these particularities with a universalistic approach.
Coexistence of Contradictions: Many contradictions can operate simultaneously within major historical movements (e.g., in China: colonizer-colonized, peasant-landlord, proletariat-bourgeoisie).
To fully understand contradictions, one must study both sides thoroughly to avoid subjective, one-sided, or unscientific analysis.
Fundamental Contradiction: Mao explains that every society has a fundamental or primary contradiction that is most important, while all others are secondary.
As Mao states: "For instance, when the capitalism of the era of free competition developed into imperialism, there was no change in the class nature of the two classes in fundamental contradiction, namely, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, or in the capitalist essence of society; however, the contradiction between these two classes became intensified, the contradiction between monopoly and non-monopoly capital emerged, the contradiction between the colonial powers and the colonies became intensified, the contradiction among the capitalist countries resulting from their uneven development manifested itself with particular sharpness, and thus there arose the special stage of capitalism, the stage of imperialism. Leninism is the Marxism of the era of imperialism and proletarian revolution precisely because Lenin and Stalin have correctly explained these contradictions and correctly formulated the theory and tactics of the proletarian revolution for their resolution."
It's crucial to acknowledge secondary contradictions and their influence on capitalism's function, without forgetting that the fundamental contradiction remains the class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
These non-principal or secondary contradictions can alter immediate situations (e.g., allowing the CPC to ally temporarily with the Kuomintang against Japanese imperialism, despite their primary capitalist contradiction).
The Principal Contradiction and Its Aspects
Defining the Principal Contradiction: "In capitalist society the two forces in contradiction, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, form the principal contradiction. The other contradictions, such as those between the remnant feudal class and the bourgeoisie, between the peasant petty bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisie, between the proletariat and the peasant petty bourgeoisie, between the non-monopoly capitalists and the monopoly capitalists, between bourgeois democracy and bourgeois fascism, among the capitalist countries and between imperialism and the colonies, are all determined or influenced by this principal contradiction.”
Shifting Principal Contradiction: The principal contradiction can change temporarily. For example, in semi-feudal China, when imperialist powers like Japan launched aggression, "the contradiction between imperialism and the country concerned becomes the principal contradiction."
Imperialism and Internal Contradictions: Imperialism often allies with existing rulers to exploit people, intensifying internal contradictions (e.g., the comprador bourgeoisie in the Congo, supported by American capital, further exploiting their own people).
Systemic Overcoming: Contradictions play out until one overcomes the other, fundamentally changing the system. Capitalism overcame feudalism and transformed from a progressive to a regressive force. Free market capitalism was subsumed by finance monopolies, leading to global imperialism.
Proletariat's Future: With socialism's victory, the proletariat will shift from being the ruled to the ruler, transforming itself into the dominant class, with the bourgeoisie and its representatives eventually dying out.
Superstructure's Influence: Mao acknowledges that while the economic base is primary, the superstructure can also influence it, a point Gramsci would later develop, emphasizing the need to avoid mechanical materialism.
V. The Identity and Struggle of the Aspects of a Contradiction
Interdependence of Opposites: Mao illustrates how opposites are interdependent and cannot exist without each other (e.g., no proletariat without bourgeoisie, no landlords without peasants, no colonized without colonizer, no life without death, no above without below).
Within most systems, there are multiple opposites, each in opposition yet interrelated and unable to exist without the other.
Transformation of Opposites: All contradictions are in opposition and transform into each other through their interrelation (e.g., the proletariat transforms from ruled to ruler under socialism; the state under socialism transforms into statelessness under communism; war transforms into peace). This is the process of the identity of opposites.
Historical Process: Materialist dialectics recognizes that all processes have a beginning and an end (e.g., slavery → feudalism → capitalism → socialism) and that these processes transform into their opposites, moving from subordinate to dominant economic systems.
VI. The Place of Antagonism in Contradiction
Antagonism Defined: Opposites in their struggles don't always become antagonistic, but antagonism is a significant form of expression. For example, it can take centuries for class contradictions to develop into open antagonism leading to revolution.
Bomb Metaphor: Mao uses the metaphor of a bomb: "Before it explodes, a bomb is a single entity in which opposites coexist in given conditions. The explosion takes place only when a new condition, ignition, is present. An analogous situation arises in all those natural phenomena which finally assume the form of open conflict to resolve old contradictions and produce new things."
Varying Antagonism: Not all contradictions are antagonistic. While class conflict between rulers and ruled is always antagonistic, contradictions like those between the proletariat and peasantry don't need to be resolved antagonistically.
Shifting Antagonism: Non-antagonistic contradictions can become antagonistic and vice versa (e.g., bourgeois ideas in communist parties may become more or less important depending on the stage of resolution; the Trotsky-Stalin split was not critical in 1917 but became so later).
Antagonism vs. Contradiction: Ultimately, "Antagonism and contradiction are not at all one and the same. Under socialism, the first will disappear, the second will remain." This means antagonism is one form, but not the only form, of the struggle of opposites; its formula cannot be arbitrarily applied everywhere.
On Practice by Mao Zedong
On Practice: The Role of Experience in Knowledge
Purpose of the Text: On Practice was Mao's effort to address dogmatist errors in the Chinese communist movement and re-establish Marxism as a science proven through practice, rather than a mere religion.
Scientific Method Analogy: Mao aimed to align Marxism with the scientific method (hypothesis → experiment → conclusion). He criticized dogmatists who treated Marxism as a religious text, avoiding experimentation, learning from results, or drawing conclusions, content to remain in the theoretical phase.
This dogmatism led to detachment from reality, subjectivity, and religious adherence, becoming a "privileged book club" of intellectuals who felt superior by clinging to "original Marx" without practical engagement, a trend popular in Western Europe at the time.
Knowledge from Practice: Mao traces how humanity gained knowledge. Before Marx, materialism wasn't applied to human society, means of production, social relations, or class struggle. He asserts that human knowledge is gained primarily through practice in the material world, driven by the need for basic goods (clothes, food, shelter) using available means of production.
Humans interact with both the physical and social worlds. In class society, each class is shaped by and associated with specific ideas.
Historically, knowledge was limited by small-scale physical production and skewed by ruling-class ideas. Industrial production changed this, allowing for broader societal knowledge and the development of the scientific framework of Marxism.
Ultimately, correct theories are only achieved when they can be proven right in social practice.
Defining Social Practice: Social practice is active engagement. Like learning to swim by entering the water, not just reading about it, it forms the basis of all human knowledge. Thus, practice is the cornerstone of dialectical materialism, a scientific philosophy designed to liberate the proletariat and relying on practice, not subjective feelings, for theoretical validation.
Material Basis of Ideas: In "Where Do Correct Ideas Come From?", Mao explains that the Marxist view is that the material world (external to the brain) is the foundation for human thinking and ideology, not the other way around as liberals believe. For example, the American Revolution occurred to protect the assets of the American bourgeoisie, with the ideology of liberalism emerging as a result, rather than being driven by abstract ideals of freedom.
Since the material is primary, ideology and thoughts are humanity's best attempts to describe the real world as accurately as possible, though absolute 100% accuracy is unattainable.
Testing Ideology: An ideology's accuracy is tested by the leap from thought to practice. Successful or unsuccessful practice yields lessons that refine theory. The scientific process is cyclical: Theory → Practice → (Success/Failure leading to material change/lessons) → Refined Theory. If practice is useful and changes the material world, it leads to new analysis and lessons. If unsuccessful, it's back to step one.
Only through social practice of ideas can one understand human societies, their systems, internal contradictions, and ultimately arrive at logical knowledge and conclusions about them.
Logical vs. Perceptual Knowledge: This logical knowledge encompasses all aspects of a system for a thorough assessment of its contradictions, operations, and nuances, unlike superficial, one-sided perceptual knowledge.
Avoiding One-Sidedness: Mao stresses the importance of both theorizing about the world and engaging in practice, not just one or the other. Relying solely on practice leads to one-sided thinking, where one "cannot have a comprehensive view of an entire objective process, lack clear direction and long-range perspective, and are complacent over occasional successes and glimpses of the truth. If such persons direct a revolution, they will lead it up a blind alley.”
Practice and theory are intimately intertwined in dialectics.
Historical Examples of Knowledge through Practice: "In feudal society it was impossible to know the laws of capitalist society in advance because capitalism had not yet emerged, the relevant practice was lacking. Marxism could be the product only of capitalist society. Marx, in the era of laissez-faire capitalism, could not concretely know certain laws peculiar to the era of imperialism beforehand, because imperialism, the last stage of capitalism, had not yet emerged and the relevant practice was lacking; only Lenin and Stalin could undertake this task. Leaving aside their genius, the reason why Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin could work out their theories was mainly that they personally took part in the practice of the class struggle and the scientific experimentation of their time; lacking this condition, no genius could have succeeded.”
"Only through personal participation in the practical struggle to change reality can you uncover the essence of that thing or class of things and comprehend them."
"If you want knowledge, you must take part in the practice of changing reality. If you want to know the taste of a pear, you must change the pear by eating it yourself. If you want to know the structure and properties of the atom, you must make physical and chemical experiments to change the state of the atom. If you want to know the theory and methods of revolution, you must take part in revolution."
Mao uses historical examples, like the early industrial proletariat's journey from Luddism to scientific political organization, to show how knowledge is gained through trial and experience.
Perceptual knowledge (mental, hypothesis-forming) is subordinate to rational knowledge (gained through human practice).
Adapting to New Circumstances: Even when the world changes and knowledge is proven right or wrong, some remain subjective "die-hards," clinging to old analyses despite radically different material circumstances.
Scientific Social Practice: Marxist-Leninism is ultimately based on scientific social practice (physically changing the world). It acknowledges that while objective truth may never be fully grasped, trial and error through social practice lead to progressively closer approximations.
Proletariat's Role: In the current epoch of capitalism and imperialism, finding the truth and changing the objective world falls to the proletariat, the working classes of humanity.
World Communism: "The epoch of world communism will be reached when all mankind voluntarily and consciously changes itself and the world."
Cyclical Development of Knowledge: "Practice, knowledge, again practice, and again knowledge. This form repeats itself in endless cycles, and with each cycle the content of practice and knowledge rises to a higher level. Such is the whole of the dialectical-materialist theory."
Source
Mao, Zedong. "On Contradiction." Marxists Internet Archive. 1937. https://www.marxists.org/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_17.htm.
Mao, Zedong. "On Practice." Marxists Internet Archive. 1937. https://www.marxists.org/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_16.htm.